The Congressional Evolution of the United States (CEUS) curriculum has been specifically designed to address these gaps, examining pivotal political inconsistencies from 1774 to 1788. These issues ultimately culminated in the Congressional call for:
“…a Convention of delegates … to be held at Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation …”
The curriculum also explores the pivotal decision made at the Philadelphia Convention to abandon the Articles of Confederation, craft the current U.S. Constitution, and establish the first bicameral Congress which, proposed twelve constitutional amendments for the States to consider for ratification, laying the groundwork for the Bill of Rights
At its core, the CEUS curriculum is built on the understanding that three distinct congresses preceded the current bicameral U.S. Congress:
- United Colonies of North America Continental Congress (UCCC)
- United States of America Continental Congress (USCC)
- United States of America in Congress Assembled (USCA)
The CEUS curriculum tackles this discrepancy in its 10th module, Debate: Which State is the First U.S. State? In this exercise, students analyze primary sources demonstrating that New Hampshire’s delegates to the United Colonies Continental Congress were the first to vote for independence on July 2, 1776; Virginia was the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on December 16, 1777; and Delaware was the first state to ratify the current U.S. Constitution on December 7, 1787. Students are then asked:
- Was Delaware the first state? If not, which state do you believe is the first U.S. state?
- What historical evidence supports your argument?
- Collaborate with your classmates to reach a consensus on which state is the “First U.S. State.”
The CEUS curriculum incorporates elements of the "First State" perspective in its 2nd module, Challenge: Did the United Colonies Continental Congress Govern as a Republic? This section provides primary sources for students to analyze and form their own conclusions about whether the United Colonies Continental Congress operated as a republic.
The Congressional Evolution of the United States curriculum offers an engaging and thoughtful approach to the history of America’s political development, empowering students to critically examine the nation’s foundational periods and the evolving structures of governance.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Class of 2017 students at Carpenters' Hall with the docent holding a Virginia Three Pound Note signed by the first President of the United Colonies Continental Congress Peyton Randolph AND a 1776 Autograph Letter Signed by Cyrus Griffin the last President of the United States in Congress Assembled. Carly is holding an original 1774 printing of the Articles of Association passed in this hall, which named the Continental Congress and the Address to the King's Most Excellent Majesty by the Continental Congress dated October 1774 and signed, Henry Middleton, President – For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
Neil Ronk, Senior Guide and Historian of the Christ Church Preservation Trust holds up John Dunlap's 1777 York-Town printing of the 1776 Journals of Congress flanked by NCHC Honors Students. The Journals have been opened to July 2nd 1776, marking the passage of the Resolution for Independency. - For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Background on the USCA Presidency
On February 22, 1781, Congress unanimously resolved:
"The delegates of Maryland having taken their seats in Congress with powers to sign the Articles of Confederation: Ordered, That Thursday next [March 1, 1781] be assigned for compleating the Confederation; and that a committee of three be appointed, to consider and report a mode for announcing the same to the public: the members, [Mr. George] Walton, Mr. [James] Madison, Mr. [John] Mathews." [Journals of the Continental Congress, February 22, 1781]
Journals of Congress and United States in Congress Assembled printed on title page by David C. Claypool in 1781 - copyright Historic.us
On March 1, 1781, the Articles of Confederation were fully ratified, enacting the Constitution of 1777. This document established a unicameral governing body called the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) to oversee the United States of America. The USCA was tasked:
"... to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years." [Articles of Confederation, Article IX]
The first session of the USCA convened in Philadelphia on March 2, 1781, with Samuel Huntington presiding as its first president. This transition also reaffirmed George Washington’s role as General and Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army.
Pictured are the 1781 Continental Congress and USCA Journals, opened to two significant moments in U.S. history. On the left page, the final entries of the Journals of Congress record the delegates' names who ratified the Articles of Confederation, marking the formal establishment of the first U.S. Constitution. On the right page, the transition to the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) is documented, beginning with the March 2, 1781, session presided over by Samuel Huntington as the first USCA President. These journals, an essential historical record, were printed in 1787 in New York by John Patterson for the use of the United States in Congress Assembled.
While similar in some respects, the USCA presidency was notably weaker than the presidency of the Continental Congress (1774–1781).
Key Differences Between the Two Presidencies
Legislative Power and Quorum Requirements:
The Continental Congress (1774–1781) could pass binding legislation on all 13 states with a quorum of just seven states. However, under the Constitution of 1777, a nine-state quorum was required for the USCA to enact significant measures. This higher threshold often hampered decision-making.Furthermore, Continental Congress presidents wielded considerable influence over legislative priorities. As the presiding officers, they determined which issues came before Congress and could cast decisive votes as their state’s sole representative. This gave the Continental Congress president disproportionate power, holding a 1/7th or 1/13th vote on critical matters such as military orders, judicial decisions, and appointments during the Revolutionary War.
Under the USCA, however, the Articles of Confederation mandated that at least two delegates from each state had to be present for the delegation to vote. On March 2, 1781, this rule disqualified New Hampshire and Rhode Island from voting due to insufficient representation.
Rules Limiting Presidential Power:
On May 4, 1781, Congress adopted "Rules for conducting business in the United States in Congress assembled," which further curtailed the president’s authority. These rules stripped the president of the ability to set the congressional agenda, a power frequently used by Continental Congress presidents such as Henry Laurens.For instance, Rule 10 dictated:
"When a motion is made and seconded it shall be repeated by the President or If he or any other member desire being in writing it shall be delivered to the President in writing and read aloud at the table before it, shall be debated." [Rules for Conducting Business, USCA, May 4, 1781]
This effectively reduced the president’s role to a procedural moderator, unable to advance or debate motions without consensus.
Delegation of Responsibilities:
Under the USCA, many presidential functions were redistributed. For example, John Hanson successfully championed a resolution transferring much of the president’s correspondence duties to USCA Secretary Charles Thomson. Similarly, USCA foreign secretaries, including Robert R. Livingston and John Jay, assumed the responsibilities of entertaining foreign diplomats—duties once overseen by the Continental Congress presidents.The USCA also experimented with governance through a "Committee of the States," an executive board-style arrangement that operated without direct presidential oversight.
Compensation:
Both Continental Congress and USCA presidents were paid only a delegate salary by their home states. However, USCA presidents were granted modest reimbursements for household expenses. This financial arrangement is evidenced in a 1785 broadside titled "Estimate of the Annual Expenditure of the Civil Departments of the United States, on the present Establishment."As Dr. Farley Grubb, an economics professor at the University of Delaware, explains:
"No paper Continental dollars were issued after 1779, and they had stopped circulating as money by 1781. By 'dollars,' they meant the Spanish milled dollar ... It would not be until 1792 that the US Mint struck its own silver dollar." [Email correspondence with Dr. Farley Grubb]
1785 Broadside of the "Estimate of the Annual Expenditure of the Civil Departments of the United States, on the present Establishment" - It is important to note that no paper Continental dollars were issued after 1779, and they had stopped circulating as money by 1781. In 1785, the United States in Congress Assembled made the dollar the official unit of account of the U.S. government, but did not issue physical dollar currency, thus by "dollars" they meant the Spanish milled dollar. No one denominated any transactions in Continental paper dollars after 1781. Now, banknotes denominated in dollar units (again meaning Spanish milled dollars) were being used from 1781 on (Bank of North America, several state banks, and then the First Bank of the US), but these notes were not official legal tender currency before Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, simply declared paper banknote dollars of several banks as good as Spanish milled dollars for paying Federal taxes.It would not be until 1792 that the US Mint struck its own silver dollar at a slightly different value (weight) then Spanish milled dollar. Spanish milled dollars, along with many other foreign specie coins, remained a legal tender in the United States until 1854. - Email Excerpt paraphrased from Dr. Farley Grubb, Economics Professor, University of Delaware.
Chart Comparing Presidential Powers - Click Here
Created circa 1817, this iconic painting by John Trumbull, now housed in the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C., since 1824, captures a pivotal moment in American history. Measuring 144 inches by 216 inches, the artwork depicts General George Washington resigning his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army to the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) at the Maryland State House in Annapolis on December 23, 1783.This monumental act was significant in establishing civilian governance over military authority, a cornerstone for the formation of a republic rather than a dictatorship. Washington's resignation underscored his commitment to democratic principles and the relinquishment of power back to the people through their elected representatives.Notably, Washington submitted his resignation to USCA President Thomas Mifflin, who had previously been implicated in the Conway Cabal of 1778—a plot to replace Washington with General Horatio Gates as Commander-in-Chief. The scene captures a moment of reconciliation and honor as Washington, flanked by two aides-de-camp, addresses Mifflin and the assembled delegates.Among the delegates depicted in the painting are Elbridge Gerry, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, James Madison, Thomas Stone, William Ellery, Roger Sherman, and other notable statesmen, symbolizing the collaboration and unity of the early republic. Trumbull’s masterpiece immortalizes a defining act of leadership and humility that set a lasting precedent for civilian control of the military in the United States.
George Washington continued to serve as General and Commander-in-Chief of the United States Continental Army until December 23, 1783. On that date, in Annapolis, Maryland, Washington submitted his resignation to President Thomas Mifflin during a regular session of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA). The USCA, which would remain the unicameral federal government of the United States for another five years, did not appoint another Commander-in-Chief during its tenure.
On September 13, 1788, the USCA Delegates “finally passed, without a dissentient voice or the least apparent animosity,” a resolution to enable the new federal government to commence under the recently ratified Constitution of 1787. The enabling resolution stated:
"... whereas the constitution so reported by the Convention and by Congress transmitted to the several legislatures has been ratified in the manner therein declared to be sufficient for the establishment of the same and such ratifications duly authenticated have been received by Congress and are filed in the Office of the Secretary therefore Resolved That the first Wednesday in January next be the day for appointing Electors in the several states, which before the said day shall have ratified the said constitution; that the first Wednesday in February next be the day for the electors to assemble in their respective states and vote for a president; and that the first Wednesday in March next be the time and the present seat of Congress the place for commencing proceedings under the said constitution." [Journals of the United States in Congress Assembled, September 13, 1788]
Virginia delegate Henry Lee shared the news with George Washington on the same day, informing him that the capital would remain in New York and offering reflections on the challenges Washington would face as the first President under the new government. Lee wrote:
"It would certainly be unpleasant to you & obnoxious to all who feel for your just fame, to see you at the head of a tumbling system. It is a sacrifice on your part, unjustifiable in any point of view. But on the other hand no alternative seems to be present. Without you the govt. can have but little chance of success, & the people of that happiness, which its prosperity must yield." [Letters of the Delegates, Henry Lee to George Washington, September 13, 1788]
Articles of Confederation and Constitution of 1787 language establishing its respective offices of President. |
Despite the enactment of the resolution, the USCA struggled to form a quorum as its authority waned after passing subsequent Northwest Ordinance resolutions. On November 2, 1788 the Eighth USCA term expired and the following day, the Ninth USCA was unable to form a quorum. This difficulty is evidenced by Tench Coxe's letter to James Madison on January 27, 1789, in which he described the challenges facing Congress:
"I have been here about a Fortnight during which time we have not made a Congress. So. Carolina, Virga, Pennsa, N. Jersey, & Massachussets are represented. There is one Member from each of the States of Rhode Island, N. Carolina & Georgia, but none from New Hampshire, Connecticut, N. York, Delaware or Maryland. I very much wish we may make a house in a week or ten days, as I think the Appearance in Europe, & perhaps even here, of the old Congress being in full operation and tranquilly yielding the seats to the new would have a good effect. The misrepresentations in Europe have been extremely gross, and must have an unfavorable effect upon Emigration in the poorer ranks of life. Col. Wadsworth has been mentiond as President. I respect him much, but I wish to give appearance to the old System by a Character of rather more celebrity. Mr. Adams would meet my Judgment better than any member of the present house. The principal Objection is his Absence, which I fear will deprive him of his chance." [Tench Coxe to James Madison, January 27, 1789]
Ultimately, a quorum never formed, and the Articles of Confederation presidency effectively ended with Cyrus Griffin’s term on January 21, 1789. From January 22, 1789, until George Washington’s inauguration on April 30, 1789, under the new Constitution, there was no one serving as “President” in the United States of America.
The last entry in the USCA Journals, dated March 2, 1789, records New York Delegate Philip Pell attending the final quorum call. On March 3, 1789, the unicameral government of the United States in Congress Assembled quietly dissolved, leaving North Carolina and Rhode Island as the only states still adhering to the defunct "Perpetual Union" under the Articles of Confederation. [Journals of the United States in Congress Assembled, March 2, 1789]
National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Class of 2017 Students at the 2nd Bank of the United States under the portrait of USCA President Samuel Huntington. Sydney is holding-up a Revolutionary War–dated manuscript document signed as President of the Continental Congress, “Sam. Huntington,” May 16, 1780. This is a $6,000 pay order issued to Joseph Borden, commissioner of the Continental Loan Office of New Jersey for clothing. Chris is holding-up a document signed by James Lawrence, and cancelled by Oliver Ellsworth, Jr. for monies owed by the State of Connecticut to Huntington for his service as a delegate to congress and the nation. The note is dated March 11, 1781, which was the 11th day of the Huntington’s service as the first USCA President under the Articles of Confederation. On the verso is of this document is written "Number 1424 Certificate, Saml Huntington Dat 1 Feby, 1781, £ 11-9-4" with a second signature “Saml Huntington.” President Samuel Huntington was the first President to serve under the Articles of Confederation, not John Hanson. – For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
The Fourth American Congress: Establishment Under the Constitution of 1787
The Fourth American Congress, created by the United States Constitution of 1787, began its proceedings as resolved by an act of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) on March 4, 1789. Unlike the Articles of Confederation's Constitution of 1777, which required unanimous ratification, the Constitution of 1787 required only nine states to adopt the new government for the United States of America. By August 1788, all thirteen states had held ratifying conventions, with only North Carolina and Rhode Island failing to adopt the new Constitution at that time.
On September 13, 1788, the USCA Delegates reached unanimous agreement on the location of the federal capital, eliminating the final obstacle to launching the new federal government. On the same day, the USCA enacted the enabling resolution to commence proceedings under the new Constitution:
US Constitution of 1787, United States in Congress Assembled Enabling Resolution Broadside date September 13th, 1788, and signed by USCA Secretary Charles Thomson. |
"... whereas the constitution so reported by the Convention and by Congress transmitted to the several legislatures has been ratified in the manner therein declared to be sufficient for the establishment of the same and such ratifications duly authenticated have been received by Congress and are filed in the Office of the Secretary therefore Resolved That the first Wednesday in January next be the day for appointing Electors in the several states, which before the said day shall have ratified the said constitution; that the first Wednesday in February next be the day for the electors to assemble in their respective states and vote for a president; and that the first Wednesday in March next be the time and the present seat of Congress the place for commencing proceedings under the said constitution." [Journals of the United States in Congress Assembled, September 13, 1788]
Tuesday, March 3, 1789, was officially set as the final day of governance under the USCA.
Inauguration of the New Congress
On Wednesday, March 4, 1789, the Fourth American Congress convened for the first time in New York City. However, neither the United States House of Representatives nor the Senate achieved the constitutionally mandated quorum necessary to conduct business. The Journal of the House of Representatives records the following:
"NEW HAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, SOUTH CAROLINA, and GEORGIA:
Being the eleven States have respectively ratified the Constitution of Government of the United States, proposed by the Federal Convention, held in Philadelphia, on the 17th of September, 1787. Congress of the United States, begun and held at the city of New York, on Wednesday, the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine, pursuant to a resolution of the late Congress, made in conformity to the resolutions of the Federal Convention of the 17th September, 1787; being the first session of the Congress held under the Constitution aforesaid. On which day, the following members of the House of Representatives appeared and took their seats, to wit: From Massachusetts, George Thatcher, Fisher Ames, George Leonard, and Elbridge Gerry. From Connecticut, Benjamin Huntington, Jonathan Trumbull, and Jeremiah Wadsworth. From Pennsylvania, Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg, Thomas Hartley, Peter Muhlenberg, and Daniel Heister. From Virginia, ... Alexander White. From South Carolina, ... Thomas Tudor Tucker. But a quorum of the whole number not being present, the House adjourned until to-morrow morning eleven o'clock." [Journal of the House of Representatives, March 4, 1789]
The House of Representatives achieved its first quorum on April 1, 1789, and the Senate followed on April 6, 1789, electing its officers on the same day.
George Washington’s Inauguration
On April 21, 1789, John Adams was sworn in as Vice President and began presiding over the Senate. Nine days later, on April 30, 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States at Federal Hall in New York City.
George Washington's April 30th, 1789, inauguration oil painting, Circa 1899 by Ramon de Elorriaga |
A ceremonial broadside, issued on April 29, 1789, detailed the planned inauguration process. It outlined seating arrangements, the public administration of Washington’s oath on the outdoor gallery of Federal Hall, and the accompanying procession to St. Paul’s Chapel for a religious service. Highlights included:
- The Senate Chamber was arranged with chairs for key officials, including the former President of the USCA, Cyrus Griffin, and heads of departments such as Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay and Secretary of War Henry Knox.
- Washington’s oath was administered in the gallery to ensure maximum visibility for citizens.
- After the ceremony, Washington and other officials processed to St. Paul’s Chapel for a service conducted by Bishop Samuel Provoost. [Ceremonial Broadside, April 29, 1789]
Formation of the First Supreme Court
On February 1, 1790, the Supreme Court of the United States convened for the first time in the Merchants Exchange Building in New York City. The inaugural Supreme Court was composed of:
- Chief Justice John Jay (New York)
- Associate Justice John Rutledge (South Carolina)
- Associate Justice William Cushing (Massachusetts)
- Associate Justice James Wilson (Pennsylvania)
- Associate Justice John Blair (Virginia)
This marked the judicial branch’s formal establishment as outlined in the Constitution of 1787.
Conclusion
The Fourth American Congress, under the Constitution of 1787, represented a significant evolution in governance. It replaced the weaker framework of the Articles of Confederation and introduced a stronger federal structure with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The orderly transfer of power, culminating in Washington’s inauguration, set a precedent for peaceful transitions and the establishment of enduring republican institutions.
On September 24, 1789, the United States Congress set the yearly salary of the United States President at $25,000 and the Vice President at $5,000. The 1789 Presidential salary of $25,000 translates to $672,000 in 2012 dollars. Currently the US Presidential salary is $400,000/year, plus a $50,000 non-taxable expense account. The compensation of the President is controlled by law, Compensation of the President: Title 3, Section 102.
National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Class of 2017 students are pictured at Federal Hall National Historic Park with a park ranger displaying the 1789 Acts of Congress opened to the 12 Amendments in the Joint Resolution of Congress issued on September 25, 1789. Of these amendments, commonly known as the Bill of Rights, "Article the First" remains unratified and is still pending before Congress. Cintly holds a Northwest Territory document signed by Arthur St. Clair, Imani holds the First Bicameral Congressional Act establishing the U.S. Department of State, and Rachael holds a 1788 letter from John Jay to Connecticut Governor Samuel Huntington transmitting a treaty with France. For more information visit the National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
The Vice President
Speaker of the House
President pro tempore of the Senate
Secretary of State
Secretary of the Treasury
Secretary of Defense
Attorney General
Secretary of the Interior
Secretary of Agriculture
Secretary of Commerce
Secretary of Labor
Secretary of Health and Human Services
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
Secretary of Transportation
Secretary of Energy
Secretary of Education
Secretary of Veterans Affairs
Chart Comparing Presidential Powers - Click Here
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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